Abstract

Quaternary climatic fluctuations have had profound effects on the phylogeographic structure of many
species. Classically, species were thought to have become isolated in peninsular refugia, but there is
limited evidence that large, non-polar species survived outside traditional refugial areas. We examined
the phylogeographic structure of the red fox (Vulpes vulpes), a species that shows high ecological
adaptability in the western Palaearctic region. We compared mitochondrial DNA sequences (cytochrome
b and control region) from 399 modern and 31 ancient individuals from across Europe. Our objective was
to test whether red foxes colonised the British Isles from mainland Europe in the late Pleistocene, or
whether there is evidence that they persisted in the region through the Last Glacial Maximum.
We found red foxes to show a high degree of phylogeographic structuring across Europe and,
consistent with palaeontological and ancient DNA evidence, confirmed via phylogenetic indicators that
red foxes were persistent in areas outside peninsular refugia during the last ice age. Bayesian analyses
and tests of neutrality indicated population expansion. We conclude that there is evidence that red foxes
from the British Isles derived from central European populations that became isolated after the closure of
the landbridge with Europe.