Abstract

Undertaking regular bouts of physical activity has been consistently linked to improved physical health and psychological wellbeing. Despite these benefits, physical inactivity is a worldwide issue. Often, efforts to improve levels of physical activity involve the adoption of various psychological techniques, such as goal setting. Recently, open goals, which are often framed as exploratory statements such as “see how well you can do”, have emerged as a promising new approach in goal setting. Specifically, open goals have been found to produce more positive psychological and equivalent performance outcomes in physical activity tasks when compared to traditional goal-setting approaches (e.g., specific goals). However, current evidence centres on adults who are predominantly active, rather than those who are insufficiently active, and thus most in need of physical activity. Therefore, the aim of this thesis was to investigate the use of open goals in physical activity for both active and insufficiently active adults. To address this overarching aim, four empirical studies were conducted.
First, Study 1 used an experimental design to examine the effects of specific and open goals on performance and psychological outcomes in both active and insufficiently active adults in a brief walking task. Open goals resulted in greater distance walked and significantly greater pleasure and enjoyment for insufficiently active adults. Conversely, for active adults, specific goals resulted in greater distance walked, pleasure, and enjoyment.
To understand why open goals resulted in more positive outcomes for insufficiently active adults in Study 1, Study 2 adopted a qualitative approach as part of a sequential explanatory mixed method design. Findings suggested that when pursuing specific and open goals in the brief walking test, insufficiently active and active adults differed in their: (1) perception of challenge; (2) perceived control; (3) performance satisfaction; (4) motivational intensity; (5) enjoyment; (6) self-efficacy; and (7) strategies for pursuing goals. More positive psychological outcomes were reported by active adults when pursuing specific goals, whereas open goals appeared to elicit more positive psychological outcomes for insufficiently active adults.
Study 3 used a longitudinal experimental design to examine the effects of specific and open goals on physical activity and psychological outcomes over one week in active and insufficiently active adults. Study 3 showed no performance differences between specific and open goals but did demonstrate psychological differences. Specifically, insufficiently active adults reported more enjoyable experiences, and greater perceptions of performance and confidence when pursuing an open goal, whereas active participants reported greater levels of enjoyment in the pursuit of a specific goal.
Finally, Study 4 adopted a qualitative approach as part of a sequential explanatory mixed method design to explore insufficiently active adults’ experiences of pursuing specific and open goals in the 1-week experiment in Study 3. Findings indicated that insufficiently active adults experienced positive psychological outcomes such as enjoyment and confidence, whereas specific goals resulted in feelings of pressure and less favourable psychological outcomes.
Overall, the findings of this thesis indicate that open goals may offer a viable, and in some instances more effective, goal-setting approach for insufficiently active adults. By extending research evidence demonstrating positive psychological outcomes associated with the pursuit of open goals, this thesis makes an original contribution to understanding of effective goal-setting approaches for physical activity promotion. Furthermore, important theoretical, research, and applied implications have arisen from this thesis, which may provide strong foundations for future research investigating goal setting in physical activity promotion contexts.