Abstract

Between-group encounters are common in non-human primates and can vary from affiliative to aggressive. We extracted data from the literature to test five different hypotheses: 1) where there are group size differences between opposing groups, whether the larger group is more likely to win a between-group encounter than the smaller group; 2) whether the likelihood of a group engaging in aggressive between-group encounters increases with group size; and 3-5) whether dominant, older animals, and/or males are more likely to participate aggressively in between-group encounters than subordinate, younger animals and/or females. Our dataset comprised 52 studies on 31 primate species (3 lemur species, 5 New World monkeys, 19 Old World monkeys and 4 apes). We found that the larger group is more likely to win an encounter against a smaller group than vice-versa. We found no significant relationship between group size and propensity to be aggressive during between-group encounters. We found weak/no support for the effect of age, dominance rank and sex on the frequency of aggression displayed towards outgroup animals during between-group encounters. Species- and population-specific differences in between- and within-group competition and in the degree of the unequal distribution of resources across group members may explain why age, dominance rank and sex are not strong predictors of aggression during between-group encounters.